What is instructional design?
In short, instructional design is the process by which learning products and experiences are designed, developed, and delivered. These learning products include online courses, instructional manuals, video tutorials, learning simulations, etc. Instructional designers are the 'architects' of the learning experience and the 'directors' of the Instructional Systems Design ISD process. The terms instructional design, instructional technology, learning experience (LX) design, curriculum design, and instructional systems design (ISD), are sometimes used interchangeably. Below are a few instructional design definitions from various sources:
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
Instructional Technology & Designers
Dempsey and Reiser (2018) describe IT&D as being, “Professionals in the field of instructional design and technology (IT&D), particularly those who have been primarily trained to design instruction, have been focusing their efforts on improving human performance in the workplace” (p.4).
​
History of ID & Technology
​
The Evolutional Journey of Instructional Technology
In the 1950s, instructional television was introduced—it was one-way communication
In the 1960's and into 1970s, college degrees were being offered in Instructional Technology
In the 1980s the systems approach was getting recognition for Instructional Technology and Instructional Design
In the mid-1990s more personal computers were commonplace and the Internet more available to the general population—this allows for two-way communication
​
Differences between Piaget & Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theories
​
Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
​
Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist who is best known for creating Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. This theory was first introduced with his book, Motivation and Personality, published in 1954. The five basic innate human needs:
​
-
Self-actualization – personal growth and fulfillment, creativity, problem-solving
-
Esteem – achievement, status, responsibility, reputation, confidence, respect of others
-
Love/belonging – family, affection, relationships, acceptance, sexual intimacy
-
Safety – protection, security, order, law, limits, stability, the security of body, morality
-
Physiological and Biological – basic life needs, air, hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, slee
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is displayed in a pyramid format for better understanding. Maslow created his hierarchy of human needs based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs. In regards to deficiency needs, each of the lower needs must be met before a person can move on to the next higher level. His Hierarchy of Needs theory continues to be used today for understanding human motivation, management training, and personal development. Maslow focused on both intellectual and emotional growth which was obtained through Self-actualization and Self-transcendence. Once these two levels were reached, a person would be considered wise and capable of critical thinking brought on by life experiences.
​
Tier one represents physiological needs, addresses the basic necessities such as water breaks, snack breaks to help energize, background music, the physical layout of a room, and focused attention practices like controlled breathing or quieting their minds in order to allow thoughts to flow.
​
Tier two represents stability, safety, and security, freedom from fear of rejection. During this tier, students can check their attitudes and adjust them to be positive and accepting of their fellow students’ performances. Teachers might want to consider a comment box where students can write out their concerns for the class. In addition, daily affirmations can be posted in the front of the room so that the students can feel inspired.
​
Tier three involves belonging and love; this can be duplicated by having students work in groups or with a partner. There can also be a classroom service project with all the students involved in one common goal. As students work together and communicate, they create an atmosphere where bonding takes place, as well as feelings of support and securities
​
Tier four is the achievement, recognition, and respect phase when self-esteem can be encouraged and boosted. There may be a day in which students may demonstrate their expertise. Learners can also display skills they may have while leading their fellow classmates in instructions. Students can also be recognized for their small achievements such as completing mid-terms, work completion, showing respect and compassion for others.
Tier five is the self -actualization and self-fulfillment stage when students can actually explore and apply critical thinking skills. As they begin to explore, model, design, evaluate, and analyze information, pupils become creative thinkers as they problem-solve. At this level, students should be encouraged to apply their knowledge and skills in order to solve their problems.
​
Benjamin Blooms Taxonomy
Taxonomy of educational objectives, developed in the 1950s by the American educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom, which fostered a common vocabulary for thinking about learning goals. Bloom’s taxonomy engendered a way to align educational goals, curricula, and assessments that are used in schools, and it structured the breadth and depth of the instructional activities and curriculum that teachers provide for students. Few educational theorists or researchers have had as profound an impact on American educational practice as Bloom.
​
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Handbook One, pp. 201-207):
-
Knowledge “involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting.”
-
Comprehension “refers to a type of understanding or apprehension such that the individual knows what is being communicated and can make use of the material or idea being communicated without necessarily relating it to other material or seeing its fullest implications.”
-
Application refers to the “use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations.”
-
Analysis represents the “breakdown of a communication into its constituent elements or parts such that the relative hierarchy of ideas is made clear and/or the relations between ideas expressed are made explicit.”
-
Synthesis involves the “putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole.”
-
Evaluation engenders “judgments about the value of material and methods for given purposes.”
​
​
Learning Theories
Learning theories explain how learners understand and retain knowledge during the process of discovery. This discovery typically happens by stimulation: visual, verbal (both reading and writing), hearing and touch.
​
Constructivism
A learning theory that utilizes a foundation which is supported by both psychology and philosophy. Fundamentally, constructivism supports learning by stimulating a learner’s own personal knowledge and meaning based on their personal experiences (Doolittle, n.d.). When learners do not have any prior knowledge or experiences, it is constructivism theory that explains the need for exploration in order to construct new knowledge and new experiences.
​
Behaviorism
Unlike constructivism which believes learning happens with experiences, the behaviorism theory, also known as behavioral psychology, believes that learning happens through conditions that either reinforce learning or discourages it with positive or negative consequences. These conditions the exposure and interactions with our surroundings (stimulus). If the stimulus is positive, then the behavior will continue. If the stimulus is negative, then the behavior is discouraged and less likely to continue. The punish and award system is a good example of how learning can be guided and nurtured.
​
Cognitivism
Much like constructivism, cognitivism learning theory supports that cognitive development from direct learning itself, and not only observed behavior. Cognitivists believe there is a learning process by absorbing knowledge, and learning is a change of a learner’s schemata. Humans are capable of learning and developing knowledge through mental processes, whereas behaviorism believes humans are empty spaces waiting to be filled and taught what to think.
​
Connectivism
Another approach very similar to constructivism is the connectivism learning theory, which is fairly new. Just as constructivism asserts that learning happens when connections are made to prior experiences, or the ability to create new experiences, connectivism supports that because of digital and technology, learning never stops and continues well after formal education has stopped. Having ongoing access to innovative technologic tools leads to a continuation of learning new information.
​
Refernces
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - EdPsyc Interactive. (n.d.). Retrieved October 21, 2016, from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/conation/maslow.html
​
Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology. New York: Pearson.
